Iltutmish Reforms of the Real Founder of the Delhi Sultanate

Iltutmish — From Slave to Sultan: The Story and Legacy of the Real Founder of the Delhi Sultanate

Introduction

Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236 CE) was a prominent ruler of the Slave Dynasty who strengthened the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate. Originally a Turkic slave, he rose through ability, bravery and statesmanship to succeed Qutbuddin Aibak. His reign established political stability, administrative systems and financial authority that held the Sultanate together during a perilous era.

Birth and Early Life

Iltutmish was born into a Turkic family in Central Asia. Although his early years were marked by the misfortune of slavery, his intelligence, courage and quick learning set him apart even as a young man.

Origins and Enslavement

As a child he was enslaved and taken from Central Asia to Baghdad and later to India. In the social and political climate of the time, even talented persons could be reduced to servitude.

Skills, Training and Freedom

Iltutmish displayed exceptional military and administrative aptitude: horsemanship, command of warfare, and organizational skill. Qutbuddin Aibak recognized these talents, separated him from other slaves, provided special training, and eventually freed him. From that point Iltutmish steadily rose through the ranks to become Aibak’s most trusted aide and military officer.

Character Formed by Hardship

The hardships of his early life shaped Iltutmish into a tolerant, resilient and efficient administrator. His life is an inspiring story of struggle, resolve and achievement.

Accession to the Throne (1211 CE)

Iltutmish became Sultan of Delhi in 1211 CE after a period of political turmoil following Aibak’s death. His accession was the result of both military success and political recognition by the nobility.

Circumstances Leading to Power

Death of Qutbuddin Aibak (1210 CE): After Aibak’s death, Aramshah briefly held power but proved ineffective.
Support of the Amirs: Dissatisfied nobles invited Iltutmish (then governor of Badaun) to take the throne because of his proven abilities.
Military Victory: Iltutmish launched a campaign against Aramshah, defeated him, and secured the throne of Delhi in 1211 CE.
Caliphal Recognition: To legitimize his rule, Iltutmish later sought and obtained recognition from the Abbasid Caliph; in 1229 CE he received the title “Sultan-e-Azam,” strengthening his international stature.

Early Challenges

After accession, Iltutmish faced provincial rebellions and the looming threat of Mongol expansion under Genghis Khan. He used a combination of military action and diplomacy to protect the Sultanate and consolidate authority.

Administrative Reforms

Iltutmish introduced and organized key administrative measures that provided stability and revenue for the Sultanate.

Iqta System and Revenue Administration

He organized the iqta system to manage land revenue and administrative duties. Under this system, land assignments to military and administrative officers became a reliable source of income and governance.

Monetary Reforms

Iltutmish issued standardized coins — notably the silver tanka and copper jital — which reflected and reinforced the financial stability of the Delhi Sultanate.

Political and Military Achievements

His political and military leadership expanded and secured the Sultanate during a vulnerable period in South Asian history.

Defense against External Threats

Iltutmish successfully guarded the Sultanate against potential Mongol incursions through proactive defense and diplomatic measures that discouraged direct Mongol attacks on Delhi.

Territorial Consolidation

He subdued rival provincial rulers and extended the Sultanate’s influence, creating a more unified and centrally administered polity.

Architectural and Cultural Patronage

During his reign the construction of the Qutub Minar complex was completed — a tangible symbol of the Sultanate’s presence and patronage of architecture.

Succession and Death

Iltutmish died in 1236 CE. His chosen successor was his daughter, Razia Sultan, who later became the first woman ruler of Delhi — a remarkable outcome that reflected Iltutmish’s judgment and the confidence he placed in her abilities.

Legacy and Historical Significance

Iltutmish is often called the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate because his administrative reforms, financial measures and political vision strengthened the dynasty’s foundation. He turned a fragile post-Aibak polity into a more stable and centrally governed state.

“From a life of slavery to the throne of Delhi, Iltutmish’s story is one of courage, competence and foresight — a true testament to leadership formed under hardship.”

Why his reign mattered

He institutionalized administrative structures that outlived his reign.
He established a credible currency and revenue base for the Sultanate.
He defended the realm at a time when external threats could have ended the nascent Sultanate.
His succession planning opened the door for Razia’s historic rule.

Conclusion — An Inspiring Historical Arc

Iltutmish’s life reads like a powerful story of transformation: from enslaved child to the architect of a durable imperial structure. His combination of military skill, administrative competence and political foresight secured the Delhi Sultanate and left an enduring legacy in medieval Indian history.

Administrative Reforms of Iltutmish

Iltutmish is regarded as the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate because he established a strong, systematic and centralized administrative structure. His reforms not only stabilized the Sultanate during his reign but also laid the foundation for effective governance in the years that followed.

1. Organising the Iqta System

Definition: The Iqta system was a land revenue arrangement under which officers and soldiers were granted land in lieu of salaries.

Iltutmish reorganised the Iqta system and established strict rules to regulate the responsibilities of the Iqtadars.
Every Iqtadar had to ensure that land revenue was used for maintaining troops and administrative operations.
This system streamlined revenue collection and strengthened military administration.

2. Restructuring of Coins

Iltutmish introduced a standardized currency system to ensure financial stability.
He issued the silver Tanka and copper Jital, which became the economic base of the Sultanate.
These reforms boosted trade and strengthened the financial structure of the empire.

3. Strengthening Central Authority

Iltutmish brought distant provinces under the direct control of Delhi.
He took strict measures against rebellious governors and re-established central authority.
This reduced political fragmentation and unified the Sultanate.

4. Establishment of the Chaalisa (Group of Forty)

Iltutmish created an influential aristocratic group known as the Chaalisa, consisting of forty prominent nobles.
This elite council helped in governance and supported various state policies.
Although it later created challenges, it was effective during Iltutmish’s rule.

5. Legal and Religious Reforms

He strengthened the justice system based on Islamic law (Sharia).
Qazis were appointed across the empire to oversee judicial and religious matters.
This ensured uniformity in legal administration.

6. Strategic and Security Improvements

In response to Mongol threats, Iltutmish built and fortified strategically important forts.
He reorganized and expanded the army to strengthen defense.
Delhi was developed into a secure and efficient administrative capital.

7. Recognition from the Caliph

To legitimize his authority, Iltutmish sought recognition from the Abbasid Caliph.
In 1229 CE, he received the title “Sultan-e-Azam”, enhancing his international prestige.

Impact of Administrative Reforms

The reforms brought political and economic stability to the Delhi Sultanate.
They created a centralized and organized administrative structure.
Iltutmish’s governance laid the groundwork for the long-term success of the Slave Dynasty.
His administrative vision remains a milestone in medieval Indian history.

Political Achievements of Iltutmish

Iltutmish was an able ruler and visionary leader who provided political unity, military stability, and strategic direction to the Delhi Sultanate. His political achievements strengthened the empire and solidified its authority in North India.

1. Consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate

Iltutmish declared Delhi the capital and fortified it militarily and administratively.
He transformed his rule from a nominal authority into a powerful, centrally governed empire.

2. Suppression of Provincial Revolts

After Aibak’s death, several provinces declared independence.
Iltutmish re-established control over Bengal, Bihar, Awadh, and Sindh.
He captured key forts such as Gwalior and Ranthambore, strengthening strategic control.

3. Conflict with Rajput States

Iltutmish weakened major Rajput powers such as Chittor, Ajmer, and Kalinjar.
He captured strategically important forts like Ranthambore and Mandu.

4. Protection from Mongol Invasion

During his reign, Genghis Khan pursued Jalaluddin of Khwarezm into India.
Iltutmish skillfully refused asylum to Jalaluddin, preventing direct Mongol hostility.
This diplomatic move saved North India from a Mongol assault.

5. International Recognition from the Caliph

To enhance the legitimacy of his rule, Iltutmish sought recognition from the Abbasid Caliphate.
In 1229 CE, he received the prestigious title “Sultan-e-Azam”.
This elevated the Delhi Sultanate’s status in the Islamic world.

6. Strengthening the Slave Dynasty

Iltutmish provided stability to the Slave Dynasty through strong governance.
His administrative and military reforms strengthened the empire’s foundation.

7. Conquest of Strategic Regions

He captured important regions such as Malwa, Ujjain, and areas of Central India.
These conquests expanded the Sultanate and secured key trade routes.

8. Cultural and Architectural Contributions

Iltutmish completed the construction of the Qutub Minar, showcasing his commitment to architecture.
Political stability under his rule encouraged cultural and architectural growth.

Expansion of the Empire

Iltutmish expanded the Delhi Sultanate during his reign and gave it a strong, well-organized territorial structure. The major aspects of his imperial expansion are as follows:

1. Protection from Mongol Invasions

During Iltutmish’s time, the Mongols under Genghis Khan threatened to invade India (1221 CE).
Iltutmish adopted a diplomatic approach and maintained safe borders by avoiding direct conflict with the Mongols.

2. Control Over North India

He strengthened the Delhi Sultanate by conquering the Ganga–Yamuna Doab region and Awadh.
Rebellious governors of Bihar and Bengal were defeated and these provinces were brought back under central authority.
The ruler of Bengal, Ali Mardan, had declared independence, but Iltutmish defeated him and re-established Sultanate rule in Bengal.

3. Suppression of Rajput Rulers

Iltutmish launched campaigns against Rajput states of Rajasthan and Central India.
He captured Ranthambore, Gwalior, Ajmer, and Malwa.
By weakening Rajput power, the Sultanate's boundaries became stronger and more secure.

4. Authority Over Sindh and Multan

Iltutmish expanded the Sultanate westward by bringing Sindh and Multan under his rule.

5. Pressure on Devagiri

He extended his influence into certain regions of South India, especially Devagiri.
However, he adopted a policy of indirect control rather than full conquest in the South.

6. Strengthening the Boundaries of the Sultanate

Iltutmish not only expanded but also secured the Sultanate’s boundaries.
He strengthened the core areas through military outposts and administrative reforms.

Formation of the Chalisa (Turkan-e-Chahalgani)

The formation of the Chalisa (Turkan-e-Chahalgani) was a major political and administrative achievement of Iltutmish’s reign. It was a powerful group of forty elite Turkish nobles established to consolidate power and assist in governance. The term Turkan-e-Chahalgani means “Assembly of Forty Turkic Chiefs.”

Formation and Objectives of the Chalisa

Background

Iltutmish realized that without a loyal and organized administrative class, it would be difficult to maintain stability in the Sultanate.
Turkish nobles held significant influence, but internal rivalries and rebellious tendencies were common.
To counter these issues, Iltutmish formed a unified group of loyal, capable officers.

Structure

The Chalisa consisted of forty high-ranking Turkic chiefs skilled in administration and military affairs.
These nobles were directly accountable to the Sultan and supported him in matters of governance and statecraft.

Objectives

To ensure a more organized and efficient administration.
To control rebellious nobles by bringing them under a formal structure.
To strengthen governance across different sectors of the empire.
To assist in implementing military and administrative reforms.

Works and Contributions of the Chalisa

Political Stability

The Chalisa played an important role in stabilizing Iltutmish’s rule.
They helped in suppressing rebellions and expanding the Sultanate’s territories.

Administrative Reforms

Members of the Chalisa were appointed to significant provinces and administrative units.
They implemented central government policies across the Sultanate.

Military Contribution

The Chalisa strengthened the army and supported Iltutmish in various campaigns.
They played key roles in conquests of Bengal, Bihar, and territories of the Rajput states.

The Decline of the Chalisa

After Iltutmish’s death, the Chalisa gradually weakened in power.
During Razia Sultan’s reign, members of the Chalisa tried to challenge royal authority.
Their opposition created political instability for Razia Sultan, who attempted to rule independently of their influence.
Under later rulers, factionalism and internal conflicts further weakened the Chalisa, reducing its effectiveness.

Introduction of Coins

Iltutmish introduced significant reforms in the currency system of India and established a new coinage structure that became the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate’s monetary system. He issued the silver Tanka and the copper Jital, which fulfilled the economic and commercial needs of the period.

Background

Before Iltutmish, the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate made no systematic efforts to organize the monetary system.
Arab and Turkish coins circulated in the early years of the Sultanate.
Coins issued by various regional rulers were also in circulation, causing inconvenience in trade and administration.

Objectives of the New Currency

To strengthen and organize the Sultanate’s economy.
To establish economic unity by circulating a common currency across the empire.
To present the Delhi Sultanate as an integral part of the Islamic world by obtaining recognition from the Caliph.

Coins Issued by Iltutmish

1. Silver Tanka

Made of 175 grains (approximately 11.66 grams) of silver.
Became the official currency of the Delhi Sultanate and remained in use for a long period.
Bore Quranic verses, the name of the Sultan, and declarations of loyalty to the Caliph.
Its weight and size matched the standards used in the broader Islamic world.

2. Copper Jital

Issued for daily transactions and used by the general public.
Served as a low-value coin essential for local trade and market exchanges.
Replaced local currencies, making trade simpler and more uniform.

3. Gold Dinar

Although issued in limited quantities, some evidence suggests Iltutmish minted gold coins (dinars).
Used for large-scale trade, royal ceremonies, and high-value transactions.

Features of the Coins

Islamic Influence

Coins carried Quranic verses and names of Caliphs, inscribed in Arabic.
This indicated that the Delhi Sultanate was part of the larger Islamic world.

Standardized Size and Weight

Tanka and Jital were minted in fixed weight and standard dimensions.
This uniformity extended across the entire empire.

Symbol of Power and Legitimacy

The Sultan’s name and titles were engraved on the coins, reinforcing his authority.
The Caliph’s name provided religious approval and legitimacy.

Effects of Iltutmish’s Currency System

Economic Stability: His reforms provided stability to the Sultanate’s economy and facilitated smooth transactions.
Growth of Trade: A common currency boosted commerce and strengthened trade ties with Islamic countries.
Foundation of Modern Indian Currency: The Tanka system became the model for later monetary systems used by the Mughals and other Indian rulers.

Recognition of the Caliphate

Recognition from the Caliph was one of the most significant political and religious achievements of Iltutmish’s reign. This step strengthened the legitimacy, religious authority, and political credibility of the Delhi Sultanate.

Background

In Islamic tradition, the Caliph was regarded as the supreme spiritual and political leader of the Islamic world.
Recognition by the Caliph signified that a ruler governed in accordance with Islamic principles.
The early Sultans of Delhi faced rebellions and internal conflicts, creating challenges in legitimizing their authority.

Objectives of Iltutmish

To gain religious legitimacy for his rule.
To weaken the opposition of Turkish nobles and rival factions.
To secure the Sultanate’s identity within the Islamic world.

Obtaining Recognition from the Caliph

Establishing Contact

Iltutmish sent envoys to the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mustansir Billah of Baghdad.
The envoys presented Iltutmish’s loyalty and requested formal recognition of his authority.

Recognition by the Caliph

In 1229 CE, the Abbasid Caliph formally recognized Iltutmish as the Sultan of Delhi.
The Caliph granted him the title of “Representative of the Caliph” and acknowledged him as a true supporter of Islam.

Symbols of Honor

The Caliph bestowed upon Iltutmish a ceremonial robe (khilat), a flag, and a sanad (certificate of authority).
These items symbolized his religious and political legitimacy.

Importance of Caliphal Recognition

Religious Legitimacy: The Sultan’s rule was now recognized as just and aligned with Islamic law.
Political Stability: The recognition weakened the influence of rebellious nobles and strengthened the Sultan’s authority.
International Recognition: The Delhi Sultanate gained respect in the Islamic world, improving diplomatic and trade relations with Central and West Asia.
Public Influence: The Sultan was seen as a divinely supported ruler, which helped in administrative and territorial expansion.

Results and Impact

Consolidation of the Empire: Caliphal approval helped Iltutmish suppress revolts and unify the Sultanate.
Succession Tradition: Later Sultans continued the practice of seeking symbolic approval from the Caliph.
Religious-Political Balance: Recognition helped maintain harmony between religious authority and political power.

Contribution to Architecture

The early period of the Delhi Sultanate was a significant phase in the evolution of architecture and the introduction of the Islamic style in India. Iltutmish made remarkable contributions to architecture by constructing grand monuments and mosques that beautifully blended Turkish and Indian designs.

1. Completion of the Construction of Qutub Minar

The Qutub Minar, the most iconic monument of Delhi, was completed during Iltutmish’s reign.
The construction was started by Qutbuddin Aibak but remained unfinished during his lifetime.
Iltutmish completed the structure in 1220 CE.
Its height, Quranic inscriptions, and intricate arches are outstanding examples of early Islamic architecture in India.

2. Tomb of Sultan Garhi

In 1231 CE, Iltutmish built the tomb of his son, Nasiruddin Mahmud, at Sultan Garhi.
It is considered the first Islamic tomb in India.
The structure seamlessly blends Hindu and Islamic architectural elements, featuring domes, arches, and carved pillars.

3. Construction of Jama Masjid and Other Mosques

Iltutmish built several mosques, including the “Do Saheliyon ki Masjid” and other regional mosques.
These featured the extensive use of arches, minarets, and geometric decoration typical of Turkish architecture.
Arabic calligraphy and Quranic verses adorned their walls.

4. Reuse of Hindu and Jain Architectural Elements

Iltutmish reused remains of Hindu and Jain temples in constructing mosques and other buildings.
This can be clearly seen in the Qutb complex, where temple pillars were integrated into Islamic structures.

5. Construction of Forts and Palaces

Iltutmish built numerous forts and palaces across his empire.
These served as military bases as well as administrative centers.
Their architectural style reflects authority, power, and grandeur.

Architectural Features During Iltutmish’s Reign

A Blend of Turkish and Indian Styles

A combination of Turkish elements (domes, arches, minarets) and Indian craftsmanship (intricate carvings and ornate pillars) is visible.

Use of Arabic Inscriptions

Monuments were decorated with Quranic verses and Arabic calligraphy.

Development of Dome and Arch Techniques

The architectural refinement of domes and arches during Iltutmish’s period influenced later Sultanate and Mughal architecture.

Blend of Religious and Political Architecture

His structures served religious as well as administrative purposes, visible in mosques, tombs, and forts.

Influence of Iltutmish’s Architectural Style

Foundation of Islamic Architecture: His buildings laid the groundwork for Islamic architectural traditions in India.
Cultural Syncretism: The blending of Hindu craftsmanship with Islamic forms showcased cultural harmony.
Symbol of Power: His monuments symbolized royal authority, political stability, and devotion.

Qutub Minar

The Qutub Minar is one of Delhi’s most historic monuments and is regarded as a masterpiece of early Indo-Islamic architecture. Construction was initiated by Qutbuddin Aibak and completed by Iltutmish. Today, it is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

History of Qutub Minar

Start of Construction

Construction of the Qutub Minar began in 1193 CE under Qutbuddin Aibak, the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
The minaret symbolized the establishment of Islamic authority in Delhi following the conquests of the Ghurid Empire.
Initially known as “Qutb Minar-e-Islam” (The Islamic Victory Tower), it represented Islamic triumph and cultural expansion.

Completion of Construction

Iltutmish completed the upper stories of the tower and added decorative elements during his reign (1211–1236 CE).
Later, in the 14th century, Firoz Shah Tughlaq repaired and strengthened the structure.

Architectural Features of Qutub Minar

Height and Structure

The Qutub Minar stands at approximately 72.5 meters (238 feet), making it the tallest brick minaret in India.
It has five distinct storeys, each with a projecting balcony.

Materials and Construction

Mainly constructed using red sandstone, giving it its signature colour and texture.
The interior and exterior surfaces contain intricate carvings, Quranic verses, and Arabic inscriptions.
An ancient Iron Pillar stands nearby, adding historical and archaeological value to the complex.

Style of Construction

The design showcases Turkish and Islamic architectural styles.
Features include domes, arches, fluted columns, and geometrical patterns.
A large courtyard surrounds the base, historically used as a ceremonial space.

Inscriptions and Decoration

Arabic inscriptions mention Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, and later rulers.
The engravings glorify Islamic victories and the heritage of the Delhi Sultanate.
Floral motifs and geometric patterns cover the walls of the tower.

Purpose of Qutub Minar

Religious Purpose

The minaret served as a place from where the adhan (call to prayer) was delivered.
It symbolized the spread of Islam in North India.

Political Purpose

The Qutub Minar stood as a symbol of the political power of the Delhi Sultanate.
It represented the expansion and consolidation of Islamic rule in India.

Historical and Cultural Importance

Symbol of Islamic Architecture: The minaret represents early Indo-Islamic architectural brilliance.
Foundation for Later Architecture: It influenced the architectural styles of the Khaljis, Tughlaqs, and Mughals.
UNESCO World Heritage Site: Recognized by UNESCO in 1993 as a monument of exceptional cultural value.
Tourist Attraction: One of the most visited heritage sites in India, drawing millions each year.

Structural Condition and Safety

The Qutub Minar was engineered to withstand the effects of earthquakes, with thick inner walls providing support.
Despite this, it has experienced seismic damage over the centuries and undergone several restoration efforts.

Succession and Death of Iltutmish

The succession and death of Iltutmish marked a significant turning point in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. This period witnessed efforts to stabilize political power and safeguard the administrative structure he had created. The events that unfolded after his demise shaped the future trajectory of the Sultanate.

Succession

Election of a Successor

Iltutmish did not appoint any one of his sons as his clear successor during his lifetime.
He had four notable sons: Nasiruddin Mahmud, Ruknuddin Firuz, Behzad, and Firoz.
Iltutmish ensured that only a strong and capable individual should succeed him to maintain the stability of the Sultanate.

Selection of Nasiruddin Mahmud

After Iltutmish’s death, Nasiruddin Mahmud was chosen as the Sultan of Delhi.
He was Iltutmish’s eldest son and was believed to be competent and deserving of the throne.
However, during his rule, no major political achievements were recorded, and he struggled to maintain authority.
Much of the administration fell into the hands of Iltutmish’s courtiers and officials, reflecting his weakness as a ruler.

Subordination of the Sultan

After Iltutmish, real power gradually shifted to influential amirs and military commanders.
The Sultan became a nominal figurehead, and central authority weakened significantly.
This resulted in administrative challenges and internal power struggles.

Death of Iltutmish

Time of Death

Iltutmish died in 1236 CE.
His death triggered political instability, as the process of succession became contentious.

Struggle After Death

Political instability escalated during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud.
Court nobles, generals, and members of the Chalisa took advantage of the Sultan’s weakness.
This led to rebellions, conspiracies, and rapid shifts in power.
Actual authority passed to court officials like Aitzazuddin and Ruknuddin, severely weakening the Sultanate.

Condition of the Sultanate After Iltutmish

The period following Iltutmish’s death saw intense political instability and power struggles.
His death proved that the Sultanate required a strong ruler to maintain administrative and political coherence.
Although later rulers attempted to restore stability, the central authority of the Sultan remained weakened.

Contribution of Iltutmish

Iltutmish’s reign is seen as a golden age of the Delhi Sultanate.
He stabilized the Sultanate through administrative reforms, systematized the Iqta system, introduced coinage, and strengthened central authority.
His architectural contributions, including completing the Qutub Minar and building Islamic monuments, left a lasting legacy.
His governance laid the foundation for the expansion and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate.

Conclusion

Iltutmish’s political achievements highlight his exceptional leadership, military capability, and diplomatic wisdom. He defended the Sultanate from internal revolts and external threats while establishing a stable administrative framework. This is why he is regarded as the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate.

Iltutmish expanded the empire through military strength, strategic diplomacy, and administrative excellence, giving the Sultanate geographical stability and establishing it as a powerful state.

The formation of the Chalisa demonstrated his political skill and administrative foresight. Although it later weakened, its creation was instrumental during his reign and remains a unique example in Sultanate history.

His introduction of the silver tanka and copper jital revolutionized the Indian monetary system, bringing unity, stability, and economic strength to the empire.

Obtaining recognition from the Caliph further solidified his political legitimacy and enhanced the religious authority of the Delhi Sultanate in the Islamic world.

Iltutmish’s contributions to architecture—such as Qutub Minar, Sultan Garhi, and various mosques—established the foundation of Indo-Islamic architecture in India. These monuments continue to symbolize the artistic heritage of his reign.

Although the period after his death witnessed instability and power struggles, Iltutmish’s reforms and governance model continued to influence the Delhi Sultanate and shaped its cultural and political identity.

Thus, Iltutmish’s reign remains one of the most important and stable eras of the Delhi Sultanate, laying the foundation for its future rulers and shaping the course of medieval Indian history.

References

Satish Chandra. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526). Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi, 1997.
R.C. Majumdar (ed.). The Delhi Sultanate. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai, 2007.
Ishwari Prasad. History of Medieval India. Surjeet Publications, Allahabad, 2002.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Shams al-Din Iltutmish, Sultan of Delhi.”
IndiaCulture Portal, Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India. “Iltutmish and Delhi Sultanate.”
Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Habib, Irfan. Medieval India: The Study of a Civilization. National Book Trust, India, 2016.

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